About Daniel Libeskind, New Yorks Master Planner

About Daniel Libeskind, New York's Master Planner Architects design more than buildings. An architects job is to design space, including the spaces around buildings and in cities. After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, many architects submitted plans for reconstruction on Ground Zero in New York City. After heated discussion, judges selected the proposal submitted by Daniel Libeskinds firm, Studio Libeskind. Background: Born: May 12, 1946 in Là ³d’z, Poland Early Life: Daniel Libeskinds parents survived the Holocaust and met while in exile. As a child growing up in Poland, Daniel became a gifted player of the accordionan instrument his parents had chosen because it was small enough to fit in their apartment. The family moved to Tel Aviv, Israel when Daniel was 11. He began playing piano and in 1959 won an America-Israel Cultural Foundation scholarship. The award made it possible for the family to move to the USA. Living with his family in a small apartment in the Bronx borough of New York City, Daniel continued to study music. He didnt want to become a performer, however, so he enrolled in Bronx High School of Science. In 1965, Daniel Libeskind became a naturalized citizen of the USA and decided to study architecture in college. Married: Nina Lewis, 1969 Education: 1970: Architecture degree, Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, NYC1972: Postgraduate degree, History and Theory of Architecture, Essex University, England Professional: 1970s: Various architectural firms, including Richard Meier, and various teaching appointments1978-1985: Head of School of Architecture, Cranbrook Academy of Art, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan1985: Founded Architecture Intermundium, Milan, Italy1989: Established Studio Daniel Libeskind, Berlin, Germany, with Nina Libeskind Selected Buildings Structures: 1989-1999: Jewish Museum, Berlin, Germany2001: Serpentine Gallery Pavilion, Kensington Gardens, London2002 (selected in February 2003): Ground Zero Master Plan2003: Studio Weil, Mallorca, Spain2005: The Wohl Centre, Ramat-Gan, Israel1998-2008: Contemporary Jewish Museum, San Francisco, CA2000-2006: Frederic C. Hamilton Building at the Denver Art Museum, Denver, CO2007: The Michael Lee-Chin Crystal at the Royal Ontario Museum (ROM), Toronto, Canada2008: Westside Shopping and Leisure Centre, Bern, Switzerland2008: The Ascent at Roeblings Bridge, Covington, Kentucky (near Cincinnati, Ohio)2009: The Villa, Libeskind Signature Series, prefabricated house available Worldwide2009: Crystals at CityCenter, Las Vegas , Nevada2010: 18.36.54 House, Connecticut2010: The Run Run Shaw Creative Media Centre, Hong Kong, China2010: Bord Gis Energy Theatre and Grand Canal Commercial Development, Dublin, Ireland2011: Reflections at Keppel Bay, Keppel Bay, Singapore2011: CABINN Metro Hotel, Copenhagen, D enmark 2013: Haeundae Udong Hyundai IPark, Busan, South Korea2014: Ohio Statehouse Holocaust Memorial, Columbus, Ohio2014: Beyond the Wall, Almeria, Spain2015: Sapphire, Berlin, Germany2015: Centre De Congrà ¨s Mons, Mons, Belgium2015: Zhang ZhiDong And Modern Industrial Museum, Wuhan, China2015: CityLife Master Plan, Central Tower C, and Residences, Milan, Italy Winning the Competition: The NY World Trade Center: Libeskinds original plan called for a 1,776-foot (541m) spindle-shaped Freedom Tower with 7.5 million square feet of office space and room for indoor gardens above the 70th floor. At the center of the World Trade Center complex, a 70-foot pit would expose the concrete foundation walls of the former Twin Tower buildings. During the years that followed, Daniel Libeskinds plan underwent many changes. His dream of a Vertical World Gardens skyscraper became one of the buildings you wont see at Ground Zero. Another architect, David Childs, became the lead designer for Freedom Tower, which was later renamed 1 World Trade Center. Daniel Libeskind became the Master Planner for the entire World Trade Center complex, coordinating the overall design and reconstruction. See pictures: What Happened to the 2002 Plan for Ground Zero?One WTC, Evolution of Design, 2002 to 2014 In 2012 the American Institute of Architects (AIA) honored Libeskind with a Gold Medallion for his contributions as an Architect of Healing. In the Words of Daniel Libeskind: But to create a space that never existed is what interests me; to create something that has never been, a space that we have never entered except in our minds and our spirits. And I think thats really what architecture is based on. Architecture is not based on concrete and steel and the elements of the soil. Its based on wonder. And that wonder is really what has created the greatest cities, the greatest spaces that we have had. And I think that is indeed what architecture is. It is a story.- TED2009 But when I stopped teaching I realized you have a captive audience in an institution. People are stuck listening to you. It is easy to stand up and talk to students at Harvard, but try doing it in the marketplace. If you only speak to people who understand you, you get nowhere, you learn nothing.- 2003, The New Yorker There is no reason that architecture should shy away and present this illusory world of the simple. It is complex. Space is complex. Space is something that folds out of itself into completely new worlds. And as wondrous as it is, it cannot be reduced to a kind of simplification that we have often come to be admired.- TED2009 More About Daniel Libeskind: Counterpoint: Daniel Libeskind in Conversation with Paul Goldberger, Monacelli Press, 2008Breaking Ground: An Immigrants Journey from Poland to Ground Zero by Daniel Libeskind Sources: 17 words of architectural inspiration, TED Talk, February 2009; Daniel Libeskind: Architect at Ground Zero by Stanley Meisler, Smithsonian Magazine, March 2003; Urban Warriors by Paul Goldberger, The New Yorker,, September 15, 2003 [accessed August 22, 2015]

British Imperialists' Motives in Scramble for Africa Essay

British Imperialists' Motives in Scramble for Africa - Essay Example Nevertheless, imperialism is a many-faceted phenomenon; which had political, economic and social roots. Indeed, Socialist and Marxist critics narrowed its definition down and applied the term to a certain stage of capitalist societies when discussing social and and economic conditions (p.2).Thus, any attempt to give an account on the British imperialism must highlight the underlying political, social and economic motives. As Robinson and Gallagher (1961, pp. 19) stated â€Å"a first task in analysing the late-Victorians’ share in the partition [of Africa] is to understand the motives of the ministers who directed it, and the study of official thinking is indispensable to this†. The aim of this paper is to scrutinize British Imperialists' motives in scramble for Africa in three respects: political, economic and social. The Scramble for Africa begun in the last quarter of the 18th century and lasted until the WWI. While the decline of the Ottoman influence created a power vacuum in the region, the colonial powers of Europe, following the lead of the British imperialists, have begun to fill that void. In Africa and The Victorians, Robinson and Gallagher examined the relationship between the partition of Africa and British decision-making process. According to them, the Victorians' political relations with Africa changed radically after 1882. Lord Salisbury stated that: â€Å"I do not exactly know the cause of this sudden revolution. But there it is† (Quoted by Robinson and Gallagher, 1961, pp. 17). Late-Victorians were more eager to dominate Africa than their predecessors and the British forces invaded Egypt in 1882. The collapse of weak African governments may also have played role in the partition. In fact, British divide and rule policy was also an important factor in the national unrest and disorder in Africa. However, Robinson and Gallagher focused on the British policy-making as the underlying political factor. In fact, according to them , as also indicated by Schumpeter, â€Å"The possibility of official thinking in itself was a cause of late-Victorian imperialism† (pp. 21). Indeed, England had a long tradition of imperial rule and the that policy tradition inherited from Pitt and Channing to Palmerston and Clarendon (p.22). They also highlight ed (pp.22-23) policy makers' ignorance of Africa, as the partition was made â€Å"at house parties† without any public interest or participation. In fact, the interests, and thus motives, of policy makers were different in each country. In Egypt, it was due to the collapse of the Kedive regime. In east and west Africa, British interests were related to the Egyptian occupation. In Southern Africa, â€Å"imeperial intervention against the Transvaal was designed above all to uphold and restore the imperial influence which economic growth, Africaner nationalism and the Jameson fiasco had overthrown† (pp. 463). In Rhodesias and Nyasaland, the motives were mer ged with imperial aims in Cape colonial expansion and balance the rise of the Transvaal (pp. 463). However, Robinson and Gallagher stressed that commercial or financial concerns were rather inconsequential in ministers' decision on which territories should be occupied (pp. 463). For Robinson and Gallagher, ministers' private calculations played the most important part in decision-making process and again for different reasons. However, the security concerns seem to have prevailed. In Rhodesia, it was the safety of the routes to the East, in Southern Africa it was the preservation of the colonial rule, while the safety of the routes to India was the prominent imperative (pp. 464). In fact, Robinson and Gallagher (1961, pp. 464) noted that â€Å"

A Small Theory of the Visible Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

A Small Theory of the Visible - Essay Example Reality, and not just the wilderness, is something that lies outside of what is practical, and can only be properly appreciated from a kind of receptivity that the artists perspective can capture. There are profound insights to be had from taking this view (Williams; Berger). Williams in a way hopes to frame the wilderness as conceptual art, as living art, or as performance art, at any rate a form of art. This is not an empty exercise in highfalutin aesthetics, or an attempt to cultivate an elevated mind. This is not empty intellectualizing, but something rooted in the way the wilderness and its experience can be made more immediate. This is not to say that framing the wilderness as art is something that has some outward economic, financial, or utilitarian function, to improve humanity. This is not it at all. In the mind of Williams this has more to do with the proper framing of the wilderness in terms of a perspective that in a way restores its sanctity, its religious essence. Art i s something that has no defined use in society, and it has the ability to jolt and to shock people into paying attention, away from their smart phones, their computers, their mundane interests, their conversations, and the business of life. Why shouldnt the wilderness be framed in the same way? There is something ultimately mysterious and indefinable about the wilderness, something that cannot be tamed and cannot be domesticated and caged in aquariums, or in natural history museums. There is something ultimately mysterious.

Electricity Demand and Supply Pakistan Essay Example for Free

Electricity Demand and Supply Pakistan Essay Electricity load-shedding in Pakistan is one of the biggest domestic problems faced by the country. Along with the problems that the power shortage brings for the society as a whole and for the inhabitants of the society the power failures seriously curbs the economic potential of the economy. Considering most of the medium and large scale industries of Pakistan depend on machinery that is run by electricity they are heavily dependent on the electricity supply, with the electricity supply cut their production capacity decreases dramatically as well. Since most of Pakistani manufacturing industries lack the self generation ability hence this power outage is even more harmful to their business. So eventually what ends up happening is that along with creating general distress among the public this power shortage reduces the production capacity of the firms and hence reduces the aggregate supply. Aggregate supply can be defined as the total supply of goods and services that firms in a national economy plan on selling during a specific time period. It is the total amount of goods and services that firms are willing to sell at a given price level in an economy. It is the total amount of goods and services that firms are willing to sell at a given price level in an economy. In the long run, the aggregate-supply curve is assumed to be vertical In the short run, the aggregate-supply curve is assumed to be upward sloping SRAS (Short run aggregate demand) shows total planned output when prices in the economy can change but the prices and productivity of all factor inputs e.g. wage rates and the state of technology are assumed to be held constant. LRAS (Long run aggregate supply) shows total planned output when both prices and average wage rates can change – it is a measure of a country’s potential output and the concept is linked strongly to that of the production possibility frontier The SRAS and LRAS can be graphically represented as follows: SRAS LRAS Now what happens is that firms will have to cut down their production process in order to effectively meet the costs incurred or it will come to a position of losses. The cutting down of the production process means decreasing the supply of the firm. As a firm produces lesser than it did before, fewer workers will be needed because the excess labor has been made redundant since fewer employees are now needed to produce lesser output. Moreover, the firm can no longer afford to employ as many workers as it did before. Hence this will eventually give rise to over the course of time as many workers have will have to be laid off in industries due to low activity. This will invariably decrease the total consumption of the population because as the unemployment increases the purchasing power of the people also falls. They are now earning fewer wages and the income effect will lead to a drastic decrease in the consumption. Consumption is one of the major contributors in the aggregate demand function. We define aggregate demand as the total demand for all goods and services produced in the economy at a given time and price level. It is the amount of goods and services in the economy that will be produced at all possible price levels. The aggregate demand is usually described as a linear sum of four separable demand sources.[3] Where: C = Consumption I = Investment G = Government Spending (X-M) = Net Exports – Net Imports The graph for AD is as follows: It is often cited that the aggregate demand curve is downward sloping because at lower price levels a greater quantity is demanded. While this is correct at the microeconomic, single good level, at the aggregate level this is incorrect. The aggregate demand curve is in fact downward sloping as a result of the Pigou’s wealth effect. Pigou effect is an economics term that refers to the stimulation of output and employment caused by increasing consumption due to a rise in real balances of wealth, particularly during deflation. Keynes said that a drop in aggregate demand could lower employment and the price level (deflationary depression). Hence it can be said that any decrease in the consumption would bring about a fall in the aggregate demand. Consumer demand or consumption, that is also known as personal consumption expenditure, is the largest part of aggregate demand or effective demand at the macroeconomic level. The interaction of the aggregate demand and aggregate supply gives us the market equilibrium. Now as has been previously pointed out, frequent power cuts will mean a cutting down of the production process which invariably brings about a decrease in the aggregate supply. What happens is that as aggregate supply decreases with the aggregate demand being constant (as obviously people would still be demanding the same quantity of products) inflation will increase as shown below: Now here we can see with AS moving to a new point as it decreases it is actually increasing the price level which results in inflation and as a result unemployment increases as well, because when there is inflation in the economy there is a rise in prices hence there is a fall in the demand of goods and services and the producers reduce their production level and as a result they end up decreasing the number of workers which means unemployment increases. Unemployment on the macroeconomic level is a sign that the economy is operating below its full production capacity, this is a sign of inefficiency. Here we can see that inflation is playing a key role in determining the employment level. Hence we’ll have a look at how load shedding gives rise to inflation. Inflation is conventionally defined as a general increase in the level of prices in goods and services. One of the effects of inflation is a decrease in the value of money. During the course of inflation income and prices do not increase at the same rate; the purchasing power of the nation as a whole drops. One of the reasons of inflation is surplus amount of money which causes the prices to rise at an extremely high rate. Other than that, another reason for inflation is the rise in the costs of production which in turn increases the prices of the products. Moreover inflation occurs when aggregate supply exceeds aggregate demand hence increasing the price level. In the context of load shedding though, we see that it has been a triggering stimulus for initiating inflation. The CPI inflation averaged 23.5 percent in July-February 2008-09 in Pakistan as against 8.9 percent in the comparable period of last year. The deficiency of energy sources is causing stir on the demand side of the economic picture causing an increase in the demand for energy sources as it has a huge effect on all spheres of economy of a nation having a primary influence on industry level. The insufficiency of the available energy sources is causing the people to demand more electricity to meet their needs on the individual as well as industry level which in turn when observed in the context of graphical representation shows a shift of the demand curve to the right causing a shift of the equilibrium position increasing the price level. (Demand-Pull Inflation) The increase in level of inflation has also been caused due to an increase in the cost of energy sources. The scarcity of the energy resources available to the industries is making them shift to other sources for the purpose of energy generation which in turn has caused their costs to sky rocket. Now, due to the heavy burden that everyone has to face in this state of affairs is causing a shift of the AS curve in terms of graphical representation of the scenario. The increase in the costs of production for the industries in turn affects the aggregate supply causing it to decline. This shift of the AS curve to the left also then causes the equilibrium price level to rise, in turn stirring up inflation in the society (Cost- Push Inflation). The power tariffs imposed would further increase the industrial input cost which is already very high making the products more expensive in the domestic as well as the international market. As far as the international market is concerned, the competitive edge of a country would be lost as their goods are more expensive in comparison to the other countries. The two types of inflation can be graphically represented as follows: Demand- Pull Inflation

Henry Thoreau’s Influence on Martin Luther King Jr. Essay -- Essays Pa

Henry Thoreau’s Influence on Martin Luther King Jr. Henry David Thoreau was a great American writer, philosopher, and naturalist of the 1800’s who’s writings have influenced many famous leaders in the 20th century, as well as in his own lifetime. Henry David Thoreau was born in Concord, Massachusetts in 1817, where he was later educated at Harvard University. Thoreau was a transcendentalist writer, which means that he believed that intuition and the individual conscience â€Å"transcend† experience and are better guides to truth than are the senses and logical reason (Prentice Hall 1174). Thoreau is well known for writing Walden Pond, Excursions, The Maine Woods, Cape Cod, and A Yankee in Canada. In 1849 Henry David Thoreau wrote an essay called Civil Disobedience which little did he know would influence great leaders such as Mohandas Gandhi, Nelson Mandela, and US civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Martin Luther King Jr. was born in Atlanta, Georgia in 1929. He graduated college with honors and developed a talent for public speaking. A man by the name of Edgar D. Nixon saw King’s public-speaking gifts as great assets in the battle for black civil rights in Montgomery, where the bus system was about to be boycotted on account of Rosa Park’s incarceration. King slowly became a well-known civil rights leader that gave many speeches and non-violent protests. This is about the time that King studied the writings of Henry David Thoreau, especially Civil Disobedience. Throughout the history of the United States, there have been many times when citizens have felt the need to revolt against the government. Times of revolt where when Henry Thoreau was alive and during the civil rights movement of the 1950’s. The reasons for ... ...st laws performed by the government. King actually adopted Thoreau’s teachings and ideas of direct action and used them in leading the movement to end racial segregation in the United States. Henry David Thoreau was a brilliant transcendentalist writer, who not only influenced people of his time, such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, but many great leaders in the past century. Civil Disobedience paved away for non-violent protests that were more effective in changing unjust laws. Martin Luther King Jr. followed many of Thoreau’s teachings and which made segregation no longer a problem in America. Two other great leaders that Thoreau influenced were Mohandas Gandhi, and Nelson Mandela. Thoreau inspired reforms and the overturning of unjust laws and customs. If it weren’t for Henry David Thoreau and Civil Disobedience, many unjust laws might have been still in effect today.

Cancer Can Be Avoided

Being one of the longest prevailing diseases without a cure, cancer has claimed the lives of many people not only in the South Pacific but the world and has left many families destitute and traumatized. Cancer with its variety and names depending on the area of the body affected has led to an unpredictable increase in number of deaths in a society’s census affecting the population by the bulk each year. This essay will argue that cancer can be avoided and intends to list and describe ways in which it can be reduced to a minimum. The essay will unfold in two parts. Firstly it will elaborate on the causes of cancer. Then it will briefly state solutions to help combat cancer. Cancer is the result of abnormal cell growth and is caused when a normal body cell does not function properly. The cell grows and divides uncontrollably without dying out finally becoming cancerous and a tumor results and symptoms vary depending on where the cancer is situated in the body. However, the cell does not become dysfunctional on purpose instead they are the result of many unhealthy choices made by individuals, thus the intentions in the first part of this essay is to briefly give detailed explanation on causes of cancer. To begin with, research has shown that there are substances which are directly related to cancer. Substances known as carcinogens are found to provoke the cells typical function and investigations have found that exposure to these substances induce chances of getting cancer. These substances include â€Å"Tobacco, asbestos, arsenic, radiation such as gamma and x-rays, the sun, and compounds in car exhaust fumes†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ † (Medical News Today, 2012, p. 2). In addition, carcinogens are practically found everywhere from cosmetics to everyday useable items, these toxins are essentially ubiquitous consequently intensifying chances of getting cancer. However, there are those individuals with bad habits such as smoking and over consume alcohol, their choices evidently lead to cancer and eventually impact their families. Furthermore, it has been proven that age is directly proportional to cancer. Older individuals are more susceptible to cancer compared to younger individuals in a society. Therefore age is vital when considering factors for the prevalence of cancer. â€Å"As we age, there is an increase in the number of cancer causing mutations in our DNA. This makes age an important risk factor for cancer. † (Medical News Today, 2012, p. 2). Viruses also play a role in causing cancer. Cancer caused by viruses is common in Pacific Island nations and the undeviating result of this problem is an increase in mortality rate and a decrease in life expectancy amongst pacific societies. According to Mr. Joe Tooma, Chief Executive Officer of the Australian Cervical Cancer Foundation, ‘in the Solomon Islands, cervical cancer is the number one cancer killer of woman†¦.. Almost all cervical cancer has been shown to be caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Several other viruses such as HIV, Epstein-Barr virus which causes cancer common amongst children and hepatitis B and C which results in lung cancer have been identified to have an association with cancer. These viruses â€Å"suppresses or weakens the immune system- inhibits the body’s ability to fight infections and increases chances of developing cancer† (Medical News Today, 2012, p. 2). In addition to this fact, according to Mr. Tooma it is predicted that ‘four out of five people all around the world will be exposed to HPV in their lifetime. ’ This is a very alarming figure and if society is not aware, the prediction may become reality. Although cancer is a possible threat to human existence, there are preventative measures that can be followed to reduce the problem. These measures include a healthy diet and lifestyle, good habits, regular checkups to clinics and vaccination. Firstly, a healthy diet and lifestyle is vital and should be considered in an attempt to avoid cancer. A balanced meal with the right nutritional value will do more than just keep an individual fit, it will also reduce chances of getting cancer â€Å"since what we eat has been linked to the disease† (Medical News Today, 2012, p. 3). Maintaining a garden is recommended as it does not only provide fresh healthy meals but at the same time it keeps an individual fit due to physical efforts put into looking after the garden. Older individuals should keep to a daily routine that involves exercise for at least thirty minutes, as they are more susceptible to cancer. However, having a garden will not be feasible for some families especially for those in urban areas who are only confined to the walls of their house or face restrictions due to tenancy policy. But, innovations such as flower pots and possibly an agreement with landlords can help solve this issue. Secondly, ridding of bad habits such as smoking and over consumption of alcohol will considerably lower the possibility of developing cancer. Studies show that â€Å"choosing not to smoke tobacco or drink alcohol significantly lowers the risks of several types of cancer- most notably lung, throat, mouth and liver cancer. † (Medical News Today, 2012, p. 3). Finally, regular checkups and vaccination is a necessary tool in avoiding and curing cancer. Victims have an opportunity to achieve remission through the use of services such as Pap smear tests, mammograms and testicular self-examinations. â€Å"†¦ research has proven that by finding cancer early at stage 1 or 2, there is a 90 percent survival rate. However, finding cancer late at stages 3 or 4 drops the survival rate to 10-20 percent†. (Fiji Cancer Society, 2007, p. 1). Purchasing of instruments to help aid in identifying damaged cells can also be a way for organization to reduce cancer rates. Instruments like colonoscope would be obliging as it would â€Å"assist in the early detection and treatment of bowel and intestinal cancers. †(Vanuatu Daily Post Newspaper, 2012, p. 1). In addition to this fact, introductions of vaccines such as the anti-cervical cancer vaccine to combat against the HPV virus that causes cervical cancer in women. There are also vaccines present that prevent viruses such as the hepatitis B or C virus from affecting its host. However, there are cases where it is difficult to give effective treatment or the cancer cannot be cured due to genetic predisposition in DNA that is inherited from parents. But that is the whole point of having a regular check up, in order to minimize damages the cancer has done to the body and through government aids, individuals with inherited genetic predisposition n their DNA could be helped by making access to medical services convenient to them. It is evident that cancer cannot be fully eradicated however; preventative measures can be taken to reduce the chances of developing cancer. The preceding measures stated in the contents of this essay can only be fulfilled when individuals are cautious of their choices and are aware of the impact their decisions will have on society, their family and most importantly themselves.

Concentrated Definition (Chemistry)

In chemistry, concentrated refers to a relatively large quantity of substance present in a unit amount of a mixture. Usually, this means there is a lot of ​a  solute dissolved in a given solvent. A concentrated solution contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved. Because solubility depends on temperature, a solution that is concentrated at one temperature may not be concentrated at a higher temperature. The term may also be used to compare two solutions, as in this one is more concentrated than that one. Examples of Concentrated Solutions 12 M HCl is more concentrated than 1 M HCl or 0.1 M HCl. 12 M hydrochloric acid is also called concentrated sulfuric acid because it contains a minimum amount of water. When you stir salt into water until no more dissolves, you make a concentrated saline solution. Similarly, adding sugar until no more dissolves produces a concentrated sugar solution. When Concentrated Becomes Confusing While the concept of concentration is straightforward when a solid solute is dissolved into a liquid solvent, it can be confusing when mixing gases or liquids because its less clear which substance is the solute and which is the solvent. Absolute alcohol is considered to be a concentrated alcohol solution because it contains a minimum amount of water. Oxygen gas is more concentrated in air than carbon dioxide gas. The concentration of both gases could be considered versus the total volume of air or with respect to the solvent gas, nitrogen.